104-577: Pulakeshi II ( IAST : Pulakeśhi r. c. 610 –642 CE) popularly known as Immaḍi Pulakeśi , was the greatest Chalukyan Emperor who reigned from Vatapi (present-day Badami in Karnataka , India). During his reign, the Chalukya empire expanded to cover most of the Deccan region in peninsular India . A son of the Chalukya monarch Kirttivarman I , Pulakeshin overthrew his uncle Mangalesha to gain control of
208-568: A macron ). Vocalic (syllabic) consonants, retroflexes and ṣ ( / ʂ ~ ɕ ~ʃ/ ) have an underdot . One letter has an overdot: ṅ ( /ŋ/ ). One has an acute accent : ś ( /ʃ/ ). One letter has a line below: ḻ ( / ɭ / ) (Vedic). Unlike ASCII -only romanisations such as ITRANS or Harvard-Kyoto , the diacritics used for IAST allow capitalisation of proper names. The capital variants of letters never occurring word-initially ( Ṇ Ṅ Ñ Ṝ Ḹ ) are useful only when writing in all-caps and in Pāṇini contexts for which
312-456: A solar eclipse on the new moon day ( amavasya ) of the Jyeshtha month. According to modern calculations, this solar eclipse took place on 21 May 616 CE, which would mean that Pulakeshin ascended the throne in 609 CE. After Mangalesha's death, Pulakeshin appears to have faced opposition from multiple rivals, including those who were loyal to Mangalesha and those who wanted to take advantage of
416-642: A Rashtrakuta branch, which was distinct from the imperial Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta . This branch may have become subordinate to the Chalukyas after facing invasions from the Nala and Mauryas of Konkan, and later rebelled taking advantage of the conflict between Pulakeshin and Mangalesha. According to the Aihole inscription, Pulakeshin adopted the policy of bheda (divide and conquer), and bestowed favours upon Govinda while alienating Appayika. Govinda became his ally, and Appayika
520-502: A century of scholarly usage in books and journals on classical Indian studies. By contrast, the ISO 15919 standard for transliterating Indic scripts emerged in 2001 from the standards and library worlds. For the most part, ISO 15919 follows the IAST scheme, departing from it only in minor ways (e.g., ṃ/ṁ and ṛ/r̥)—see comparison below. The Indian National Library at Kolkata romanization , intended for
624-473: A copperplate charter of Chalukya Vijayaditya dated January–February 717 CE. Shreenand L. Bapat of Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute , who deciphered this inscription, identifies her with the renowned Sanskrit poet Shilabhattarika . Pulakeshin's father Kirttivarman had defeated the Mauryas of Konkana (modern Konkan ), who ruled in the coastal region of present-day Goa and Maharashtra. The Mauryas acknowledged
728-485: A court poet would "gloss over, distort, or simply ignore their patron's military defeats". The Aihole inscription must be evaluated in light of independent and reliable corroborative sources, which unfortunately are quite limited. Except for a few events, many of the claims in the Aihole inscription cannot be confirmed. The victory of Pulakesin II over Emperor Harsha can be corroborated in the writings of Xuanzang (Hsuan Tsang),
832-627: A fierce battle was fought near Kunala lake (identified with modern Kolleru Lake ), whose water turned red with the blood of those killed in the war. These inscriptions do not name Pulakeshin's rival in these conflicts, but modern scholars identify him as a king of the Vishnukundina dynasty , which ruled in Andhra Pradesh. Pulakeshin probably subjugated Vishnukundina vassals during his eastern campaign in Kalinga, which may have brought him in conflict with
936-433: A font, etc. It can be enabled in the input menu in the menu bar under System Preferences → International → Input Menu (or System Preferences → Language and Text → Input Sources) or can be viewed under Edit → Emoji & Symbols in many programs. Equivalent tools – such as gucharmap ( GNOME ) or kcharselect ( KDE ) – exist on most Linux desktop environments. Users of SCIM on Linux based platforms can also have
1040-550: A fortress in the water. Although in former days they had acquired happiness by renouncing the seven sins, the Gaṅga and Âḷupa lords, being subdued by his dignity, were always intoxicated by drinking the nectar of close attendance upon him. In the Koṅkaṇas the impetuous waves of the forces directed by Him speedily swept away the rising wavelets of pools ─ the Mauryas. When, radiant like
1144-497: A hereditary biruda (epithet) of Pulakeshin, was commonly used as a substitute for his name in the dynasty's records. He was the dynasty's most celebrated ruler, because of which the subsequent rulers called their dynasty Satyashraya-kula ("family of Satyashraya"). The imperial titles of Pulakeshin include Bhattaraka and Maharajadhiraja ("King of great kings"). Besides, he also used the family epithets Shri-prithvi-vallabha , Vallabha , and Shri-vallabha . Pulakeshin also assumed
SECTION 10
#17328487696481248-411: A minor, as Kirttivarman's younger brother Mangalesha succeeded him. The inscriptions of the later Chalukyas of Kalyani , who claimed descent from the Chalukyas of Vatapi, state that Mangalesha "took upon himself the burden of administration" because Pulakeshin was a minor. However, these inscriptions also wrongly claim that Mangalesha returned the kingdom to Pulakeshin when Pulakeshin grew up, praising
1352-448: A source of Deccan and Indian history in the 6th and 7th-century. It is also a source of controversies and inconsistencies when the claims in the Aihole inscriptions are compared to inscriptions found outside of Badami Chalukya realm. According to Richard Solomon – an Indologist specializing in epigraphical records, the Aihole inscription is a useful source of simple facts such as the date of Meguti Jain temple, Ravikirti's role in building it,
1456-453: A swarm of bees with thundering clouds, in which flashes of lightning were dancing like banners, and the edges of which were crushed in the rushing wind? When, having found the opportunity, he who was named Âppâyika, and Gôvinda approached with their troops of elephants to conquer the country north of the Bhaimarathî, the one in battle through His armies came to know the taste of fear, while
1560-585: Is a prashasti . It weaves mythologies and exaggerates. The author compares his patron em Pulakesin II to legends, and compares himself to some of the greatest Sanskrit poets such Kalidasa and Bharavi – revered in the Hindu tradition. Yet, the inscription borrows phrases from Kalidasa's influential work, in the fashion of some of the famous 6th and 7th-century inscriptions found in Nagarjuni hills , in Bodh-Gaya, and one of
1664-623: Is a transliteration scheme that allows the lossless romanisation of Indic scripts as employed by Sanskrit and related Indic languages. It is based on a scheme that emerged during the 19th century from suggestions by Charles Trevelyan , William Jones , Monier Monier-Williams and other scholars, and formalised by the Transliteration Committee of the Geneva Oriental Congress , in September 1894. IAST makes it possible for
1768-766: Is attested by his 643 CE Kheda copper-plate inscription. The Malavas ruled in and around the present-day Malwa (Malava) region in central India. According to the Chinese traveler Xuanzang, Malava ("Mo-la-po") was an independent kingdom, but the records of the Maitraka dynasty suggest that the Maitrakas controlled at least a part of the Malava territory. Thus, the Malavas may have been Maitraka vassals or independent rulers before they accepted Pulakeshin's suzerainty. The Gurjaras were most probably
1872-782: Is by setting up an alternative keyboard layout . This allows one to hold a modifier key to type letters with diacritical marks. For example, alt + a = ā. How this is set up varies by operating system. Linux/Unix and BSD desktop environments allow one to set up custom keyboard layouts and switch them by clicking a flag icon in the menu bar. macOS One can use the pre-installed US International keyboard, or install Toshiya Unebe's Easy Unicode keyboard layout. Microsoft Windows Windows also allows one to change keyboard layouts and set up additional custom keyboard mappings for IAST. This Pali keyboard installer made by Microsoft Keyboard Layout Creator (MSKLC) supports IAST (works on Microsoft Windows up to at least version 10, can use Alt button on
1976-450: Is exaggeration, but the purity of the Sanskrit and the poetic flourish of Ravikriti's composition per the alamkara-sastras does show that he was "in the very front rank of court-poets and writers of prashastis " of his times. According to Richard Salomon, the Aihole inscription excels in its grammatical correctness and literary polish, just like many other early Sanskrit inscriptions such as
2080-419: Is one among the hundreds of temples built in that era, but one built many decades after the famed Badami cave temples and many others. Fleet was the first to edit and publish a photo-lithograph of the Aihole inscription in 1876. However, errors led to another visit to Aihole and then Fleet published an improved photo-lithograph, a revised version of the text with his translation in 1879. The significance of
2184-415: Is suspected of fickleness. His son was he who was named Raṇarâga, of divine dignity, the one master of the world, whose superhuman nature, (even) when he was asleep, people knew from the pre-eminence of his form. His son was Polekêśin, who, though endowed with the moon’s Beauty, and though the favourite of Fortune, became the bridegroom of Vatapipuri. Whose path in the pursuit of the three objects of life
SECTION 20
#17328487696482288-521: Is that Harsha decided to take advantage of the turmoil resulting from the conflict between Mangalesha and Pulakeshin, and invaded the Chalukya kingdom. During his march against Pulakeshin, Harsha advanced up to the Narmada River before being forced to retreat. The Aihole inscription of Pulakeshin boasts the harsha (mirth) of Harsha melted away by fear, as his elephants fell in the battle. The only other inscription from his reign that mentions this battle
2392-580: Is the Bijapur-Mumbai inscription. Harsha's court poet Bana does not mention this conflict in his biography Harsha-charita , presumably to avoid portraying his patron in a negative light. However, Pulakeshin's success against Harsha is confirmed by other independent sources. The Chinese traveler Xuanzang , who calls Pulakeshin's kingdom Mo-ho-la-cha (the Chinese transcription of "Maharashtra"), provides evidence of Pulakeshin's success against Harsha. Xuanzang states that Shiladitya (that is, Harsha) had conquered
2496-403: Is the immeasurable, wide ocean of the Chalukya family, which is the birth-place of jewels of men that are ornaments of the diadem of the earth. And victorious for very long is Satyasraya, who in bestowing gifts and honors on the brave and on the learned, both together on either, observes not the rule of correspondency of number. When many members of that race, bent on conquest, applied to whom
2600-495: Is uncertain, but they are said to have approached the core Chalukya territory from the north of the Bhimarathi (modern Bhima ) river in present-day Maharashtra . According to historian K. A. Nilakanta Sastri , the way they are mentioned in the inscription suggests that they were military adventurers and not from a royal background. However, according to historian Durga Prasad Dikshit, their names suggest that they may have belonged to
2704-613: The Aihole prashasti , is a nineteen line Sanskrit inscription at Meguti Jain temple in Aihole , Karnataka , India. An eulogy dated 634–635 CE, it was composed by the Jain poet Ravikirti in honor of his patron emperor Pulakeshin II Satyashraya of the Vatapi Chalukya dynasty. The inscription is partly damaged and corrupted – its last two lines were added at a later date. Since the 1870s,
2808-501: The Gurjaras , who were the northern neighbours of the Chalukyas. Historian Durga Prasad Dikshit theorizes that these kingdoms may have accepted Pulakeshin's suzerainty without a military conflict, when faced with an invasion from the northern king Harshavardhana . Alternatively, it is possible that these three rulers accepted Mangalesha's suzerainty after his victory over the Kalachuris , and
2912-468: The Gurjaras of Lata (or Bharuch), and the Gurjara ruler who accepted Pulakeshin's suzerainty was probably Dadda II. The most notable military achievement of Pulakeshin was his victory over the powerful emperor Harsha-vardhana , who ruled over much of northern India. The inscriptions of Pulakeshin's successors prominently mention this victory even when they ignore his other military achievements. The date of
3016-670: The Later Guptas who controlled the Malwa region. The expansion of the Maitraka influence in the Malwa region must have attracted Harsha's attention. The Maitraka ruler Shiladitya I may have sympathized with Pulakeshin's cause during the latter's northern campaign against the Latas, the Malavas, and the Gurjaras. This situation ultimately resulted in a conflict between Harsha and Pulakeshin. Another possibility
3120-460: The Maukhari ruler Graha-varman. The Gurjara ruler Dadda II aided the Maitraka dynasty against Harsha. When Harsha decided to take action against these three kingdoms, their rulers probably sought the protection of Pulakeshin. Pulakeshin may have granted asylum to Harsha's adversaries. According to scholars Shreenand L. Bapat and Pradeep S. Sohoni, the "Malavas" mentioned in the Chalukya record were
3224-537: The 612–613 CE Hyderabad inscription of Pulakeshin. This inscription boasts that Pulakeshin defeated a king who had fought a hundred battles (presumably Harsha). The later Chalukya inscriptions, dating from the reign of Vikramaditya I onwards, mention Pulakeshin's victory over Harsha using similar expressions. This early date for the war is also supported by the writings of Xuanzang, who states that Harsha fought wars for six years, and then ruled in peace for thirty years. Scholars Shreenand L. Bapat and Pradeep S. Sohoni date
Pulakeshin II - Misplaced Pages Continue
3328-424: The Aihole inscription makes no mention of these early Rashtrakuta kings. This suggests that stories were being fabricated and inscribed on stone or copper plates. Similarly, Chalukyan copper plates state that Mangalesha handed over the kingdom to Pulakesin II when he came of age, with the added flourish that "can a scion of the Chalukya family ever swerve from the path of duty?". The later records thus assert that there
3432-604: The Aihole inscription simply refers to Pulakeshin reaffirming the Chalukya suzerainty over the Alupas. Another possibility is that the Alupas had not been completely subdued by the Pulakeshin's predecessors. The location of the core Alupa territory during Pulakeshin's period is not certain. Alupas are known to have been ruling in the Dakshina Kannada region of Karnataka for several centuries, but some scholars believe that their capital
3536-487: The Aihole inscription simply refers to Pulakeshin reaffirming the Chalukya suzerainty over them. The Lata region (present-day southern Gujarat) was formerly under the control of the Kalachuris, who had been defeated by Mangalesha. Pulakeshin, who appears to have annexed Lata to the Chalukya kingdom, placed it under the governorship of a member of the Chalukya family. The rule of the Chalukya governor Vijaya-varma-raja over Lata
3640-524: The Allahabad inscription and Deopara inscription. The Aihole inscription is a Jain inscription. It is an integral part of the Meguti Jain temple, and announces the completion of the Meguti Jain temple. The inscription itself opens with the standard Jain salutations to Jinendra in verse 1. It is a prashasti and among other things, it praises Pulakesin II for his generosity and gifts. The verses 33–34 of
3744-617: The Aluka ruler Gunasagara, who was a Chalukya vassal, was appointed to govern this region. The 692 CE Sorab inscription describes Gunasagara's son Chitra-vahana as an "Alupa", which suggests that "Aluka" is a variant of "Alupa". The Aihole inscription credits Pulakeshin with subjugating the Gangas of Talakad , who had matrimonial ties with the Kadambas. The Mahakuta pillar inscription of his predecessor Mangalesha states his father Kirttivarman also subjugated
3848-560: The Bhârata war; And when fifty (and) six and five hundred years of the Śaka kings also have gone by in Kali age; This stone mansion of Jinêndra, a mansion of every kind of greatness, has been caused to be built by the wise Ravikîrti, who has obtained the highest favour of that Satyâśraya whose rule is bounded by the three oceans. Of this eulogy and of this dwelling of the Jina revered in the three worlds,
3952-433: The Chalukya lineage for such exemplary behaviour. This claim is contradicted by Pulakeshin's own Aihole inscription , and appears to be a late attempt to gloss over Pulakeshin's overthrow of Mangalesha. The exact details of the conflict between these two men are unclear, because the Aihole inscription describes it in a rather enigmatic way. It is possible that Mangalesha initially ruled as a regent, but later decided to usurp
4056-463: The Chalukya records: Pulikeshin ( IAST : Pulikeśin) and Polekeshin (IAST: Polekeśin). "Ereya" appears to have been another of his names: the Peddavaduguru inscription calls him "Ereyatiyadigal" (or "Ereyitiyadigal"), and the Bijapur-Mumbai inscription mentions the variant "Eraja". Historian K. V. Ramesh theorizes that Ereya was the pre-coronation name of Pulakeshin. Satyashraya ("refuge of truth"),
4160-561: The Chalukya suzerainty during Mangalesha's reign, but seem to have declared independence during the Chalukya war of succession. After consolidating his power in southern Deccan, Pulakeshin successfully besieged the Mauryan capital Puri, which is variously identified as Gharapuri (Elephanta) or Rajapuri (near Janjira ). The Aihole inscription states that Pulakeshin subjugated the Latas , the Malavas , and
4264-611: The Chalukyas several years after Pulakeshin's death, also boast that they defeated the dynasty that claimed victory over Harshavardhana, thus indirectly confirming Pulakeshin's achievement. The Aihole inscription poetically states that Pulakeshin's elephants had to avoid the neighbourhood of the Vindhya mountains beside the Narmada River, because they "by their bulk, rivalled the mountains". Historian K. A. Nilakanta Sastri interprets to mean that Pulakeshin "did not send his elephant forces into
Pulakeshin II - Misplaced Pages Continue
4368-399: The Chinese pilgrim who visited India in the 7th-century. However, if the Chinese record is to be read in full and trusted, then the Aihole inscription is glossing over many details. The Harsha-Pulakesin II war continued, records the Chinese pilgrim, because the troops and citizens of Harsha did not submit to Pulakeshin II. The first battle was indeed won by Pulakeshin, yet shortly thereafter it
4472-525: The Elpattu Simbhige village after his subjugation of Ranavikrama. According to one theory, this Ranavikrama was Mangalesha, who bore the title "Ranavikrama", and who was defeated by Mangalesha in a battle fought at Elpattu Simbhige. However, another theory identifies Ranavikrama as a Bana king. Pulakeshin's Hyderabad inscription is dated 613 CE ( Shaka year 534), and was issued during the third year of his reign, which suggests that he must have ascended
4576-478: The Gangas. It is possible that the Gangas accepted the Chalukya suzerainty during Kirttivarman's reign, but subsequently gave up this allegiance taking advantage of the war of succession between Mangalesha and Pulakeshin. After Pulakeshin's victory over the Kadambas, the Gangas again accepted the Chalukya suzerainty, possibly without any military conflict. The Ganga ruler Durvinita married his daughter to Pulakeshin; she
4680-611: The Kadamba dynasty and annexed their territory to his empire. He divided this territory among his vassals: the major part of the Kadamba kingdom was granted to the Alupas under the name kadamba-mandala; the Nagarakhanda division of Banavasi was given to the Sendrakas. The first Arab Caliphatic invasion of India was an expedition by sea to conquer Thana near present-day Mumbai as early as 636 CE. It
4784-439: The Latas, the Malavas, and the Gurjaras to accept Pulakeshin's suzerainty. Historian Durga Prasad Dikshit adds that these three kingdoms are known to have been enemies of Harsha's father Prabhakara-vardhana , as attested by Harsha's court poet Bana : this enmity probably continued during the reign of Harsha. The Malava king played a role in the murder of Harsha's predecessor Rajya-vardhana , and also killed Harsha's brother-in-law,
4888-490: The Meguti temple, with the text covering about 4.75 feet by 2 feet surface. The letters are between 0.5 to 0.62 inches in height. The stylistic difference suggests that the 18th and 19th lines were corruptions added later, and are not of Ravikirti. The Aihole inscription is in Sanskrit language, all in verse, using classic chhandas (meters, Sanskrit prosody ). The 17 original lines consist of 37 verses. The meters deployed include
4992-597: The Vishnukundina dynasty. Pulakeshin conquered the Vishnukundina kingdom, located in the lower Godavari - Krishna valley, and appointed his younger brother 'Kubja' Vishnu-vardhana as the governor of the newly conquered territory. The Chalukya conquest in this region is corroborated by Vishnu-vardhana's 631 CE Kopparam copper-plate inscription, which records a land grant in the Karma-rashtra region of present-day Andhra Pradesh. The Vishnukundina ruler defeated by Pulakeshin
5096-567: The area of Sanskrit studies make use of free OpenType fonts such as FreeSerif or Gentium , both of which have complete support for the full repertoire of conjoined diacritics in the IAST character set. Released under the GNU FreeFont or SIL Open Font License , respectively, such fonts may be freely shared and do not require the person reading or editing a document to purchase proprietary software to make use of its associated fonts. Aihole inscription The Aihole Inscription , also known as
5200-399: The battle to the winter of 618–619 CE. These scholars note that the Bijapur-Mumbai grant inscription, dated 4 April 619 CE, mentions Pulakeshin's victory over Harsha, which proves that the conflict definitely took place sometime before this date. The earlier Satara inscription of Pulakeshin's brother Vishnu-vardhana , issued during his eighth regnal year ( c. 618 CE ) does not mention
5304-471: The conflict. Based on this, Bapat and Sohoni theorize that the conflict took place between November 618 CE and February 619 CE. Some earlier scholars, such as D. Devahuti dated the conflict to 630s CE, but this is no longer considered correct after the publication of the Bijapur-Mumbai inscription in 2017. The cause of the war between Harsha and Pulakeshin is not certain. Historian K. A. Nilakanta Sastri suggests that Harsha's growing influence may have driven
SECTION 50
#17328487696485408-526: The consumer edition since XP. This is limited to characters in the Basic Multilingual Plane (BMP). Characters are searchable by Unicode character name, and the table can be limited to a particular code block. More advanced third-party tools of the same type are also available (a notable freeware example is BabelMap ). macOS provides a "character palette" with much the same functionality, along with searching by related characters, glyph tables in
5512-625: The convention is to typeset the IT sounds as capital letters. For the most part, IAST is a subset of ISO 15919 that merges the retroflex (underdotted) liquids with the vocalic ones ( ringed below ) and the short close-mid vowels with the long ones. The following seven exceptions are from the ISO standard accommodating an extended repertoire of symbols to allow transliteration of Devanāgarī and other Indic scripts , as used for languages other than Sanskrit. The most convenient method of inputting romanized Sanskrit
5616-510: The date of issue was 4 January 611 CE. However, if we assume that it was issued when the 532rd year of the Shaka era was current, it can be dated to 5 July 610 CE. Based on this inscription, the end of Mangalesha's reign is variously dated to 610 CE or 611 CE. The matter is further complicated by the Maruturu inscription, which is dated to Pulakeshin's eighth regnal year, and was issued on the occasion of
5720-491: The date of this inscription. The Aihole inscription of Ravikirti, sometimes referred to as the Aihole Inscription of Pulakesin II , is found at the hilltop Meguti Jain temple, about 600 metres (1,969 ft) southeast of Aihole town's Durga temple and archaeological museum. The Aihole inscription is found on the eastern side-wall of the Meguti Jain temple. Aihoḷe – also known as Ayyavole or Aryapura in historic texts –
5824-556: The destroyer of Pura, he besieged Purî, the Fortune of the western sea, with hundreds of ships in appearance like arrays of rutting elephants, the sky, dark-blue as a young lotus and covered with tiers of massive clouds, resembled the sea, and the sea was like the sky. Subdued by His splendor, the Lâṭas, Mâḷavas and Gûrjaras became as it were teachers of how feudatories, subdued by force, ought to behave. Harsha, whose lotus-feet were arrayed with
5928-464: The difficult Vindhya terrain", and guarded the passes with infantry. According to Shreenand L. Bapat and Pradeep S. Sohoni, the inscription suggests that Pulakeshin's army subsequently tried to cross the Vindhyas , in a bid to invade Harsha's kingdom, but was unsuccessful, which may explain why only two inscriptions from Pulakeshin's reign mention his conflict with Harsha. The Aihole inscription states that
6032-506: The dust of his army, and to vanish behind the walls of Kâñchîpura. When straightway he strove to conquer the Chôḷas, the Kâvêrî, who has the darting carps for her tremulous eyes, had her current obstructed by the causeway formed by his elephants whose rutting-juice was dripping down, and avoided the contact with the ocean. There he caused great prosperity to the Chôḷas, Kêraḷas and Pâṇḍyas, he being
6136-602: The earliest known inscriptions in Cambodia . Further, in the Aihole inscription, Ravikirti borrows and builds upon several additional verses found in Raghuvaṃśa of Kalidasa and the Kirātārjunīya of Bharavi – famed works of Hindu Vishnu and Shiva traditions respectively. To his credit, Ravikirti credits these authors by naming them indirectly in his Aihole inscription, by calling himself as good as them. According to Kielhorn, this
6240-519: The earth, the Kaliṅgas with the Kôsalas by His army were made to evince signs of fear. Hard pressed (pishṭa) by him, Pishṭapura became a fortress not difficult of access; wonderful (to relate), the ways of the Kali age to him were inaccessible! Ravaged by him, the water of Kunâḷa ─ coloured with the blood of men killed with many weapons, and the land within it overspread with arrays of accoutered elephants ─
6344-573: The fame of Kalidasa, the state of language and literature in early 7th-century. The Aihole inscription is also significant by providing a definite terminus ante quem of 634 CE for both Kalidasa and Bharavi. The Aihole inscription has been a source of literary and political history close to Ravikirti's generation (early 7th century), but given the highly rhetorical style that blends historic myth, fiction and events, one aimed to boast and flatter one's employer in general public, it need not be historically accurate. Further, states Salomon, one must expect that
SECTION 60
#17328487696486448-428: The fortune of victory by his valour in war, being a scent-elephant of a king, of great strength, at once completely broke down the multitude of the broad kadamba trees ─ the Kadambas. When his desire was bent on the dominion of the lord of the gods, his younger brother Maṅgalêśa became king, who by the sheets of dust of his army of horse, encamped on the shores of the eastern and western seas, stretched an awning over
6552-660: The governor of eastern Deccan; this brother later established the independent Eastern Chalukya dynasty of Vengi . Pulakeshin also achieved some successes against the Pallavas in the south, but was ultimately defeated during an invasion by the Pallava monarch Narasimhavarman I . Pulakeshi was a Jaina , but was tolerant of other faiths, including Shaivite Hinduism , Buddhism , and Vaishnavite Hinduism . He patronized several Jaina scholars, including Ravikirtti, who composed his Aihole inscription. Two variants of Pulakeshin's name appear in
6656-568: The hot-rayed sun to the hoar-frost─ the army of the Pallavas. While he, Satyâśraya, endowed with the powers of energy, mastery and good counsel, ─ having conquered all the quarters, having dismissed the kings full of honours, having done homage to gods and Brâhmaṇs, having entered the city of Vâtâpî─ is ruling, like one city, this earth which has the dark-blue waters of the surging sea for its moat; when thirty (and) three thousand and five years besides, joined with seven hundred years, have passed since
6760-418: The inscription and continued issues with reconciling its content with other inscriptions, attracted the interest of other scholars. In 1901, the Sanskrit scholar Kielhorn re-edited the inscription at the suggestion of Fleet. He published yet another improved version of the photo-lithograph. The inscription has 19 lines of Sanskrit in old Chalukyan script. It is on a stone set as a part of the east outer wall of
6864-494: The inscription state the date to be the year 3735 after the Bharata war, or saka samvat 556. This corresponds to 634–635 CE. The nineteen lines of the inscription has been variously translated. The translation published by Kielhorn is as follows: Victorious is the holy Jinendra ─ he who is exempt from old age, death and birth ─ in the sea of whose knowledge the whole world is comprised like an island. And next, long victorious
6968-440: The inscription was recorded several times, revised, republished and retranslated by Fleet, Kielhorn and others. The inscription is a prashasti for the early Western Chalukyas. It is notable for its historical details mixed in with myth, and the scholarly disagreements it has triggered. It is also an important source of placing political events and literature – such as of Kalidasa – that must have been completed well before 634 CE,
7072-447: The kings on earth even now are unable to follow; and bathed by whom with the water of the purificatory rite, when he performed the horse-sacrifice, the earth beamed with brightness. His son was Kîrtivarman, the night of doom to the Naḷas, Mauryas and Kadambas, whose mind, although his thoughts kept aloof from others’ wives, was attracted by the Fortune of his adversary. Who, having secured
7176-419: The mountains. Almost equal to Indra, He by means of all the three powers, gathered by him according to rule, and by his noble birth and other excellent qualities, acquired the sovereignty over the three Mahârâshṭrakas with their nine and ninety thousand villages. Through the excellencies of their householders prominent in the pursuit of the three objects of life, and having broken the pride of other rulers of
7280-407: The nations from east to west, and had marched with his army to remote parts of India: only the people of Mo-ho-la-cha had refused to accept his suzerainty. Xuanzang further states that Harsha gathered troops from different parts of his kingdom, summoned his best commanders, and led the army to punish the people of Mo-ho-la-cha, but could not subjugate them. The Rashtrakutas , who ultimately overthrew
7384-469: The north. The most notable military achievement of Pulakeshin was his victory over the powerful northern emperor Harshavardhana , whose failure to conquer the Chalukyan territories to the south is attested by the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang . In the east, Pulakeshin subjugated the rulers of Dakshina Kosala and Kalinga . After defeating the Vishnukundina monarch, he appointed his brother Vishnu-vardhana as
7488-670: The opportunity to install and use the sa-itrans-iast input handler which provides complete support for the ISO 15919 standard for the romanization of Indic languages as part of the m17n library. Or user can use some Unicode characters in Latin-1 Supplement, Latin Extended-A, Latin Extended Additional and Combining Diarcritical Marks block to write IAST. Only certain fonts support all the Latin Unicode characters essential for
7592-468: The other at once received the reward of the services rendered by him. When He was besieging Vanavâsî, which for a girdle has the rows of haṁsa birds that sport on the high waves of the Varadâ as their play-place, and which by its wealth rivaled the city of the gods, that fortress on land, having the surface of the earth all around covered with the great sea of his army, to the looker-on seemed at once converted into
7696-409: The powers of good counsel and energy gathered by him, abandoned, together with the effort to secure the kingdom for his own son, both that no mean kingdom of his and his life. Then, on the subversion of that rule encompassed by the darkness of enemies, the whole world grew light again, invaded as it were by the lustrous rays of His irresistible splendor. Or when was it that the sky ceased to be black like
7800-454: The quarters. Who in that house which was the battle-field, took in marriage the damsel, the Fortune of the Kaṭachchuris, having scattered the gathering gloom, the array of elephants, with hundreds of bright-rayed lamps, the swords. And again, when he was desirous of taking the island of Rêvatî, his great army with many bright banners, which had ascended the ramparts, as it was reflected in
7904-626: The rays of the jewels of the diadems of hosts of feudatories prosperous with unmeasured might, through Him had his mirth (harsha) melted away by fear, having become loathsome with his rows of lordly elephants fallen in battle. While He was ruling the earth with his broad armies, the neighbourhood of the Vindhya, by no means destitute of the lustre of the many sandbanks of the Rêvâ, shone even more brightly by his great personal splendor, having to be avoided by his elephants because, as it seemed, they by their bulk rivaled
8008-539: The reader to read the Indic text unambiguously, exactly as if it were in the original Indic script. It is this faithfulness to the original scripts that accounts for its continuing popularity amongst scholars. Scholars commonly use IAST in publications that cite textual material in Sanskrit, Pāḷi and other classical Indian languages. IAST is also used for major e-text repositories such as SARIT, Muktabodha, GRETIL, and sanskritdocuments.org. The IAST scheme represents more than
8112-464: The right side of the keyboard instead of Ctrl+Alt combination). Many systems provide a way to select Unicode characters visually. ISO/IEC 14755 refers to this as a screen-selection entry method . Microsoft Windows has provided a Unicode version of the Character Map program (find it by hitting ⊞ Win + R then type charmap then hit ↵ Enter ) since version NT 4.0 – appearing in
8216-483: The romanisation of all Indic scripts , is an extension of IAST. The IAST letters are listed with their Devanagari equivalents and phonetic values in IPA , valid for Sanskrit , Hindi and other modern languages that use Devanagari script, but some phonological changes have occurred: * H is actually glottal , not velar . Some letters are modified with diacritics : Long vowels are marked with an overline (often called
8320-718: The ruler of Kalinga , which includes parts of present-day Odisha and northern Andhra Pradesh , is not certain either. Historian Durga Prasad Dikshit suggests that he was probably a member of the Eastern Ganga dynasty . Historian K. A. Nilakanta Sastri suggests that he may have been a Vishnukundina feudatory. According to the Aihole inscription and the Maruturu inscription, Pulakeshin invaded and captured Pishtapura (modern Pithapuram in Andhra Pradesh). The Maruturu inscription suggests that this event took place around or before 617–618 CE. The Aihole inscription states that subsequently,
8424-556: The rulers of Koshala and Kalinga accepted Pulakeshin's suzerainty without offering any resistance. Koshala here can be identified as Dakshina Kosala (present-day Chhattisgarh and western Odisha ), which was probably under the Panduvamshi rule. The Aihole inscription does not mention the name of the subjugated ruler, but historian D. C. Sircar theorizes that he may have been the Panduvamshi king Mahashivagupta Balarjuna. The name of
8528-458: The standard shlokas in 7 verses, 2 in aupachchhandasika , 3 in arya , 4 of vasantatilaka , 5 in malini , 3 in sardulavikridita , and all other verses deploy other distinct types of chandas each, such as upajati, indravajra, vamsastha, and others. The rules of Sanskrit meters are accurately followed in the Aihole inscription, which suggests that the early 7th-century Ravikirti was well trained in classical Sanskrit tradition. The inscription
8632-480: The throne for his own son (or his ability to perpetuate his own descent), his kingdom, and his own life. The above description suggests that when Pulakeshin became an adult, Mangalesha rejected his claim to the throne and possibly appointed his own son as the heir apparent. Pulakeshin went into exile, during which he must have planned an attack on Mangalesha; he ultimately defeated and killed Mangalesha. The undated Peddavaduguru inscription records Pulakeshin's grant of
8736-415: The throne in c. 610 –611 CE. The exact year of his ascension is debated among modern scholars. The 610–611 CE Goa grant inscription, which refers to an unnamed Chalukya overlord titled Shri-prithvi-vallabha Maharaja , was probably issued during the reign of Pulakeshin's predecessor Mangalesha. It is dated to the Shaka year 532: assuming it was issued after 532 years of the Shaka era had expired,
8840-412: The throne. According to the Aihole inscription, Mangalesha was envious of Pulakeshin, because Pulakeshin was a favourite of Lakshmi (the goddess of fortune). Therefore, Pulakeshin, decided to go into exile. Subsequently, Mangalesha became weak "on all sides" as Pulakeshin applied his "gifts of good counsel and energy". Ultimately, Mangalesha had to abandon three things simultaneously: his attempt to secure
8944-460: The throne. He suppressed a rebellion by Appayika and Govinda, and decisively defeated the Kadambas of Banavasi in the south. The Alupas and the Gangas of Talakadu recognized his suzerainty. He consolidated the Chalukya control over the western coast by subjugating the Mauryas of Konkana . His Aihole inscription also credits him with subjugating the Latas , the Malavas , and the Gurjaras in
9048-420: The title Parameshvara ("Supreme Lord") after defeating Harsha , as attested by his Bijapur-Mumbai inscription. The Chinese traveler Xuanzang calls him Pu-lo-ki-she. The Persian historian Al-Tabari calls him Paramesa or Pharmis, probably a Persian transcription of his title Parameshvara . Pulakeshin was a son of the Chalukya monarch Kirttivarman I . When Kirttivarman died, Pulakeshin appears to have been
9152-497: The title of Favourite of the Earth had at last become appropriate, had passed away, There was, of the Chalukya lineage, the king named Jayasimha-vallabha, who in battle ─ where horses, foot soldiers and elephants, bewildered, fell down under the strokes of many hundreds of weapons, and where thousands of frightful headless trunks and of flashes of rays of swords were leaping to and fro─ by his bravery made Fortune his own, even though she
9256-483: The transliteration of Indic scripts according to the IAST and ISO 15919 standards. For example, the Arial , Tahoma and Times New Roman font packages that come with Microsoft Office 2007 and later versions also support precomposed Unicode characters like ī . Many other text fonts commonly used for book production may be lacking in support for one or more characters from this block. Accordingly, many academics working in
9360-465: The turmoil resulting from the Chalukya war of succession. The Aihole inscription declares that "the whole world was enveloped in the darkness that was the enemies". Pulakeshin subjugated these enemies, and established the Chalukyas as the dominant power in the Indian peninsula. The Aihole inscription suggests that two rulers named Appayika and Govinda rebelled against Pulakeshin. The identity of these rulers
9464-399: The war between Harsha and Pulakeshin has been debated by modern scholars. The Kandalgaon copper-plate inscription, dated to Pulakeshin's fifth regnal year ( c. 615 CE ), mentions the conflict, but this inscription is regarded as spurious by modern scholars. Some scholars, such as K. V. Ramesh and K. A. Nilakanta Sastri , date the battle to c. 612 CE or before, based on
9568-490: The war occurred in 612 CE, or 620 CE, or in early 630s CE because inscriptions found elsewhere are not consistent with the claims of Ravikirti. The Aihole Prashasti is, at its best, a panegyric record that records some battles. This Chalukyan era Meguti temple inscription is inconsistent with many later Chalukyan inscriptions, states Altekar. For example, later Chalukyan inscriptions allege that its early rulers from Jayasimha and Pulakesin II defeated early Rashtrakuta kings, yet
9672-405: The water of the sea appeared like Varuṇa’s forces, quickly come there at once at his word (of command). When his elder brother’s son, named Polekêśin, of a dignity like Nahusha’s, was coveted by Fortune, and finding his uncle to be jealous of him thereat, had formed the resolution to wander abroad as an exile, That Maṅgalêśa, whose great strength became on all sides reduced by the application of
9776-415: The wise Ravikîrti himself is the author and also the founder. May that Ravikîrti be victorious, who full of discernment has used the abode of the Jina, firmly built of stone, for a new treatment of his theme, and who thus by his poetic skill has attained to the fame of Kâḷidâsa and of Bhâravi! (corrupt insertion at a later date) The Aihole inscription, with its different published translations has been
9880-574: Was Harsha who defeated Pulakeshin II near Narmada river in 612 CE (about 20 years before the Ravikirti's inscription). If inscriptions found in central India and the Chinese record are to be trusted, then there was a truce after both sides having won a war, Harsha ruled peacefully for next 30 years to the north of the Narmada river, while Pulakeshin II stayed in the Deccan region. Some scholars have questioned whether
9984-423: Was defeated. Pulakeshin's predecessors had subjugated the Kadambas of Banavasi , but the Kadambas no longer recognized the Chalukya suzerainty during his reign. Pulakeshin marched against them, and besieged their capital of Banavasi. The Aihole inscription suggests that the Kadambas put up a strong resistance, but were ultimately defeated. The Kadamba ruler at this time was probably Bhogivarman. Pulakeshin ended
10088-402: Was like the cloud-covered sky in which the red evening-twilight has risen. With his sixfold forces, the hereditary troops and the rest, who raised spotless chowries, hundreds of flags, umbrellas, and darkness, and who churned the enemy elated with the sentiments of heroism and energy, He caused the splendour of the lord of the Pallavas, who had opposed the rise of his power, to be obscured by
10192-647: Was located at Humcha in the Shimoga district. After subjugating the Kadambas, Pulakeshin assigned a major part of the former Kadamba territory to his Alupa vassal, who according to historian Moraes, may have been Kundavarammarasa. If "Aluka" is considered a variant of "Alupa", the Marutura inscription suggests that the Alupa vassals of Pulakeshin also ruled over the Guntur district in present-day Andhra Pradesh. According to this inscription,
10296-406: Was no war of succession between Mangalesha and Pulakesin II, something the Aihole inscription clearly mentions. Both cannot be true. Either Aihole inscription or the copper plates of Chalukyan dynasty are telling a "pious lie". According to Altekar, this is a gross contradiction, and then sides with Meguti inscription's version. Further, Altekar disagrees with Fleet, and interprets Indra as the name of
10400-524: Was probably Indravarman: he appears to have ultimately accepted Pulakeshin's suzerainty, and was allowed to rule as a Chalukya vassal. Pulakeshin assigned some of the newly conquered territories to his own feudatories. For example, the Maruturu inscription states that the Aluka ruler Gunasagara, a Chalukya vassal, came from Mangalapura (identified with modern Mangalagiri in Guntur district) to Kallura after undergoing several hardships. IAST The International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration ( IAST )
10504-488: Was successfully repulsed by the Imperial Chalukyan Navy under Pulakeshin II and they returned to Oman. The first Arab-Islamic raid on India had been repulsed. According to the Aihole inscription, Pulakeshin subjugated the Alupas , who had earlier served as Kadamba vassals. However, according to the Chalukya inscriptions, the Alupas had already been subjugated by Pulakeshin's predecessors. Therefore, it appears that
10608-450: Was the mother of Pulakeshin's son Vikramaditya I . The Gangas probably hoped to gain Chalukya support against the Pallavas , who had captured the Kongunadu region from them. The Gangas subsequently defeated the Pallava ruler Kaduvetti of Kanchi. In return, Shilabhattarika, a daughter of Pulakeshin II was married to Dadiga, a son of Mokkara (Mushkara) and grandson of Durvinita, as attested by
10712-575: Was the original capital of Western Chalukyas dynasty founded in 540 CE, before they moved their capital in the 7th-century to Vatapi . Under the Hindu dynasty of the Vatapi Chalukyas, the Malprabha valley sites – such as Aihole, Badami, Pattadakal and Mahakuta – emerged as major regional center of arts in early India and a cradle of Hindu and Jain temple architecture schools. They patronized both Dravida and Nagara styles of temples. Meguti Jain temple
10816-480: Was undertaken during the reign of the second Rashidun Caliph, Umar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb , who wanted to expand the Caliphate for various reasons. He appointed Uthman , of the tribe of Sakif , to capture Bahrain and Oman . Uthman sent his brother Hakam to Bahrain and himself proceeded to Oman. Upon reaching Oman, Usman sent a naval expedition to capture Thana on the western coast of India. The Arab-Islamic naval expedition
#647352